Article Sidebar
Submitted
August 7, 2023
Accepted
August 31, 2026
Published
August 31, 2026
Download
Statistic
Read Counter :
7
Download : 1
Main Article Content
Abstract
Purpose — This study examines the determinants of cognitive abilities among school-age children in Indonesia and their effects on subsequent educational attainment and labor market outcomes.
Methods — The study uses longitudinal data from the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS) for 2000 and 2014. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) is employed to identify the determinants of cognitive abilities, while Instrumental Variable–Two-Stage Least Squares (IV-2SLS) is used to estimate their effects on education and wages.
Findings — Children’s cognitive abilities are influenced by parental education, parental psychological health, residential location, educational expenditure, and birth order. Higher childhood cognitive scores are associated with greater educational attainment and higher wages later in life.
Implications — Policies aimed at improving children’s cognitive development should strengthen family socioeconomic conditions, parental well-being, educational investment, and support for children in disadvantaged areas.
Originality — This study provides longitudinal evidence from Indonesia linking childhood cognitive abilities with later educational and labor market outcomes. It also applies an IV-2SLS approach to address potential endogeneity and produce more robust estimates.
Keywords
Cognitive Ability
Educational Achievement
Wages
OLS
IV-2SLS
Article Details
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Siti Munawaroh
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Munawaroh, S. (2026). Determining children’s cognitive abilities and relationship to economic outcomes in adolescence. Jurnal Ekonomi Indonesia, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.52813/jei.v18i2.498
References
-
Acosta, P., Muller, N., & Sarzosa, M. (2020). Adults’ Cognitive and Socioemotional Skills and Their Labor Market Outcomes in Colombia. Revista de Economía Del Rosario, 23(1), 109–148.
Adhitya, D., Mulyaningsih, T., & Samudro, B. R. (2019). The role of cognitive and non-cognitive skills on labour market outcomes in Indonesia. Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia, 53(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.17576/JEM-2019-5301-1
Alexopoulos, D. S. (1997). Urban vs rural residence and IQ. Psychological Reports, 80(3), 851–860. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1997.80.3.851
Anger, S., & Heineck, G. (2010). Cognitive abilities and earnings - first evidence for Germany. Applied Economics Letters, 17(7), 699–702. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504850802297855
Asrijanty. (2020). BUKU SAKU ASESMEN DIAGNOSIS KOGNITIF BERKALA. Kementerian Pendidikan Dan Kebudayaan RI.
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanes, K. G. (2009). Like father, like son? A note on the intergenerational transmission of IQ scores. Economics Letters, 105(1), 138–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2009.06.022
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanes, K. G. (2010). Small family, smart family? Family size and the IQ scores of young men. Journal of Human Resources, 45(1), 33–58. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.45.1.33
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanesz, K. G. (2011). Older and wiser? Birth order and IQ of young men. CESifo Economic Studies, 57(1), 103–120. https://doi.org/10.1093/cesifo/ifq022
Blau, D. M. (1999). The effect of income on child development. The Review OfEconomics and Statistics, 81(2), 261–276. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1162/003465399558067
Booth, A. L., & Kee, H. J. (2009). Birth order matters: The effect of family size and birth order on educational attainment. Journal of Population Economics, 22(2), 367–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-007-0181-4
Borjas, G. J. (2016). Labor Economics (Seventh Edition). McGraw-Hill.
Burhan, N. A. S., Yunus, M. M., Tovar, M. E. L., & Burhan, N. M. G. (2017). Why are cognitive abilities of children so different across countries? The link between major socioeconomic factors and PISA test scores. Personality and Individual Differences, 105, 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.043
Castex, G., & Kogan Dechter, E. (2014). The changing roles of education and ability in wage determination. Journal of Labor Economics, 32(4), 685–710. https://doi.org/10.1086/676018
Cawley, J., Heckman, J., & Vytlacil, E. (2001). Three observations on wages and measured cognitive ability. Labour Economics, 8(4), 419–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-5371(01)00039-2
Chen, Q., Kong, Y., Gao, W., & Mo, L. (2018). Effects of socioeconomic status, parent-child relationship, and learning motivation on reading ability. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01297
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. In Research Defign: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed M ethods Approaches. SAGE Publications.
Dahl, B. G. B., & Lochner, L. (2012). The Impact of Family Income on Child Achievement : Evidence from the Earned Income Tax Credit †. 102(5), 1927–1956.
Domino, G., & Domino, L., M. (2006). PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING: AN INTRODUCTION (Second). Cambridge University Press.
Finnie, R., Lascelles, E., & Sweetman, A. (2005). Who Goes? The Direct and Indirect Effects of Family Background on Access to Postsecondary Education. In Higher Education in Canada. Statistics Canada.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Mainstream science on intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories, history, and bibliography. Intelligence, 24(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90011-8
Heckman, J. J. (2006). Jacob Mincer A Pioneer of Modern Labor Economics. In Jacob Mincer A Pioneer of Modern Labor Economics. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29175-x
Heckman, J. J., Stixrud, J., & Urzua, S. (2006). The effects of cognitive and noncognitive abilities on labor market outcomes and social behavior. Journal of Labor Economics, 24(3), 411–482. https://doi.org/10.1086/504455
Heiland, F. (2009). Does the birth order affect the cognitive development of a child? Applied Economics, 41(14), 1799–1818. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840601083220
Hotz, V. J., & Pantano, J. (2015). Strategic parenting, birth order, and school performance. Journal of Population Economics, 28(4), 911–936. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-015-0542-3
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development (pp. 1–5).
John, & Raven, J. (2003). Raven Progressive Matrices. In Handbook of Nonverbal Assessment (pp. 223–237). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0153-4_11
Kang, C. (2007). Does Money Matter ? The Effect of Private Educational Expenditures on Academic Performance Does Money Matter ? The Effect of Private Educational Expenditures on Academic Performance. National University of Singapore, Department of …, 151–164.
Le, H. T., & Nguyen, H. T. (2017). Parental health and children’s cognitive and noncognitive development: New evidence from the longitudinal survey of Australian children. Health Economics (United Kingdom), 26(12), 1767–1788. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3501
Lee, J. N., & Newhouse, D. (2012). Cognitive Skills and Youth Labor Market Outcomes. Background Paper for The World Development Report, 1–47.
Lindqvist, E., & Vestman, R. (2011). The labor market returns to cognitive and noncognitive ability: Evidence from the swedish enlistment. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 3(1), 101–128. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.3.1.101
Lukman. (2013). Skoring Psikotes.
Mankiw, N. G. (2010). Macroeconomics (7th Ed). In Worth Publishers.
Mayer, S. (2002). The influence of parental income on children’s outcomes. In Zeitschrift fur Soziologie.
Mensah, F. K., & Kiernan, K. E. (2010). Parents’ mental health and children’s cognitive and social development: Families in England in the Millennium Cohort Study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 45(11), 1023–1035. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-009-0137-y
Mitra, A. (2000). Cognitive skills and Black – White wages in the United States labor market. 29, 389–401.
Monfardini, C., & See, S. G. (2016). Birth order and child cognitive outcomes: an exploration of the parental time mechanism. Education Economics, 24(5), 481–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2015.1117581
Morris, T., Dorling, D., & Davey Smith, G. (2016). How well can we predict educational outcomes? Examining the roles of cognitive ability and social position in educational attainment. Contemporary Social Science, 11(2–3), 154–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2016.1138502
Murnane, R. J., Willett, J. B., & Levy, F. (1995). The Growing Importance of Skills in Wage Determination. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 77(2), 251–266.
Nur’aeni. (2012). TES PSIKOLOGI : Tes Inteligensi dan Tes Bakat. Universitas Muhammadiyah (UM) Purwokerto Press.
OECD. (2019). PISA 2018 Results. In OECD Publishing.
OECD. (2021). Programme for Internasional Student Assesment. OECD Publishing.
Parisi, J. M., Rebok, G. W., Xue, Q. L., Fried, L. P., Seeman, T. E., Tanner, E. K., Gruenewald, T. L., Frick, K. D., & Carlson, M. C. (2012). The role of education and intellectual activity on cognition. Journal of Aging Research, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/416132
RAND. (2018). RAND Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS). In Rand.
Schoon, I. (2010). Childhood cognitive ability and adult academic attainment: evidence from three British cohort studies. Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, 1(3), 241–258. https://doi.org/10.14301/llcs.v1i3.93
Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive Psychology Sixth Edition. In Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.198.4319.816
Tesfagiorgis, M., Tsegai, S., Mengesha, T., Craft, J., & Tessema, M. (2020). The correlation between parental socioeconomic status (SES) and children’s academic achievement: The case of Eritrea. In Children and Youth Services Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105242
Tomul, E., & Polat, G. (2013). The Effects of Socioeconomic Characteristics of Students on Their Academic Achievement in Higher Education. American Journal of Educational Research, 1(10), 449–455. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-1-10-7
Usaini, M. I., & Abubakar, N. B. (2015). The Impact of Parents’ Occupation on Academic Performance of Secondary School Students in Kuala Terengganu. Multilingual Academic Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 3(1), 112–120. https://doi.org/10.6007/majess/v3-i1/1899
Wang, W., Dong, Y., Liu, X., Bai, Y., & Zhang, L. (2020). The effect of parents’ education on the academic and non-cognitive outcomes of their children: Evidence from China. Children and Youth Services Review, 117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105307
Woessmann, L. (2004). How Equal are Educational Opportunities? Family Background and Student Achievement in Europe and the US. SSRN ELibrary.
Zahra, L., & Wisana, I. D. G. K. (2019). Parental Migration and Child Cognitive: Evidence from Indonesian Family Life Survey 2007 and 2014. Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Faculty of Human Ecology, IPB University, 28.
References
Acosta, P., Muller, N., & Sarzosa, M. (2020). Adults’ Cognitive and Socioemotional Skills and Their Labor Market Outcomes in Colombia. Revista de Economía Del Rosario, 23(1), 109–148.
Adhitya, D., Mulyaningsih, T., & Samudro, B. R. (2019). The role of cognitive and non-cognitive skills on labour market outcomes in Indonesia. Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia, 53(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.17576/JEM-2019-5301-1
Alexopoulos, D. S. (1997). Urban vs rural residence and IQ. Psychological Reports, 80(3), 851–860. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1997.80.3.851
Anger, S., & Heineck, G. (2010). Cognitive abilities and earnings - first evidence for Germany. Applied Economics Letters, 17(7), 699–702. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504850802297855
Asrijanty. (2020). BUKU SAKU ASESMEN DIAGNOSIS KOGNITIF BERKALA. Kementerian Pendidikan Dan Kebudayaan RI.
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanes, K. G. (2009). Like father, like son? A note on the intergenerational transmission of IQ scores. Economics Letters, 105(1), 138–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2009.06.022
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanes, K. G. (2010). Small family, smart family? Family size and the IQ scores of young men. Journal of Human Resources, 45(1), 33–58. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.45.1.33
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanesz, K. G. (2011). Older and wiser? Birth order and IQ of young men. CESifo Economic Studies, 57(1), 103–120. https://doi.org/10.1093/cesifo/ifq022
Blau, D. M. (1999). The effect of income on child development. The Review OfEconomics and Statistics, 81(2), 261–276. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1162/003465399558067
Booth, A. L., & Kee, H. J. (2009). Birth order matters: The effect of family size and birth order on educational attainment. Journal of Population Economics, 22(2), 367–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-007-0181-4
Borjas, G. J. (2016). Labor Economics (Seventh Edition). McGraw-Hill.
Burhan, N. A. S., Yunus, M. M., Tovar, M. E. L., & Burhan, N. M. G. (2017). Why are cognitive abilities of children so different across countries? The link between major socioeconomic factors and PISA test scores. Personality and Individual Differences, 105, 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.043
Castex, G., & Kogan Dechter, E. (2014). The changing roles of education and ability in wage determination. Journal of Labor Economics, 32(4), 685–710. https://doi.org/10.1086/676018
Cawley, J., Heckman, J., & Vytlacil, E. (2001). Three observations on wages and measured cognitive ability. Labour Economics, 8(4), 419–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-5371(01)00039-2
Chen, Q., Kong, Y., Gao, W., & Mo, L. (2018). Effects of socioeconomic status, parent-child relationship, and learning motivation on reading ability. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01297
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. In Research Defign: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed M ethods Approaches. SAGE Publications.
Dahl, B. G. B., & Lochner, L. (2012). The Impact of Family Income on Child Achievement : Evidence from the Earned Income Tax Credit †. 102(5), 1927–1956.
Domino, G., & Domino, L., M. (2006). PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING: AN INTRODUCTION (Second). Cambridge University Press.
Finnie, R., Lascelles, E., & Sweetman, A. (2005). Who Goes? The Direct and Indirect Effects of Family Background on Access to Postsecondary Education. In Higher Education in Canada. Statistics Canada.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Mainstream science on intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories, history, and bibliography. Intelligence, 24(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90011-8
Heckman, J. J. (2006). Jacob Mincer A Pioneer of Modern Labor Economics. In Jacob Mincer A Pioneer of Modern Labor Economics. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29175-x
Heckman, J. J., Stixrud, J., & Urzua, S. (2006). The effects of cognitive and noncognitive abilities on labor market outcomes and social behavior. Journal of Labor Economics, 24(3), 411–482. https://doi.org/10.1086/504455
Heiland, F. (2009). Does the birth order affect the cognitive development of a child? Applied Economics, 41(14), 1799–1818. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840601083220
Hotz, V. J., & Pantano, J. (2015). Strategic parenting, birth order, and school performance. Journal of Population Economics, 28(4), 911–936. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-015-0542-3
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development (pp. 1–5).
John, & Raven, J. (2003). Raven Progressive Matrices. In Handbook of Nonverbal Assessment (pp. 223–237). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0153-4_11
Kang, C. (2007). Does Money Matter ? The Effect of Private Educational Expenditures on Academic Performance Does Money Matter ? The Effect of Private Educational Expenditures on Academic Performance. National University of Singapore, Department of …, 151–164.
Le, H. T., & Nguyen, H. T. (2017). Parental health and children’s cognitive and noncognitive development: New evidence from the longitudinal survey of Australian children. Health Economics (United Kingdom), 26(12), 1767–1788. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3501
Lee, J. N., & Newhouse, D. (2012). Cognitive Skills and Youth Labor Market Outcomes. Background Paper for The World Development Report, 1–47.
Lindqvist, E., & Vestman, R. (2011). The labor market returns to cognitive and noncognitive ability: Evidence from the swedish enlistment. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 3(1), 101–128. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.3.1.101
Lukman. (2013). Skoring Psikotes.
Mankiw, N. G. (2010). Macroeconomics (7th Ed). In Worth Publishers.
Mayer, S. (2002). The influence of parental income on children’s outcomes. In Zeitschrift fur Soziologie.
Mensah, F. K., & Kiernan, K. E. (2010). Parents’ mental health and children’s cognitive and social development: Families in England in the Millennium Cohort Study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 45(11), 1023–1035. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-009-0137-y
Mitra, A. (2000). Cognitive skills and Black – White wages in the United States labor market. 29, 389–401.
Monfardini, C., & See, S. G. (2016). Birth order and child cognitive outcomes: an exploration of the parental time mechanism. Education Economics, 24(5), 481–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2015.1117581
Morris, T., Dorling, D., & Davey Smith, G. (2016). How well can we predict educational outcomes? Examining the roles of cognitive ability and social position in educational attainment. Contemporary Social Science, 11(2–3), 154–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2016.1138502
Murnane, R. J., Willett, J. B., & Levy, F. (1995). The Growing Importance of Skills in Wage Determination. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 77(2), 251–266.
Nur’aeni. (2012). TES PSIKOLOGI : Tes Inteligensi dan Tes Bakat. Universitas Muhammadiyah (UM) Purwokerto Press.
OECD. (2019). PISA 2018 Results. In OECD Publishing.
OECD. (2021). Programme for Internasional Student Assesment. OECD Publishing.
Parisi, J. M., Rebok, G. W., Xue, Q. L., Fried, L. P., Seeman, T. E., Tanner, E. K., Gruenewald, T. L., Frick, K. D., & Carlson, M. C. (2012). The role of education and intellectual activity on cognition. Journal of Aging Research, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/416132
RAND. (2018). RAND Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS). In Rand.
Schoon, I. (2010). Childhood cognitive ability and adult academic attainment: evidence from three British cohort studies. Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, 1(3), 241–258. https://doi.org/10.14301/llcs.v1i3.93
Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive Psychology Sixth Edition. In Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.198.4319.816
Tesfagiorgis, M., Tsegai, S., Mengesha, T., Craft, J., & Tessema, M. (2020). The correlation between parental socioeconomic status (SES) and children’s academic achievement: The case of Eritrea. In Children and Youth Services Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105242
Tomul, E., & Polat, G. (2013). The Effects of Socioeconomic Characteristics of Students on Their Academic Achievement in Higher Education. American Journal of Educational Research, 1(10), 449–455. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-1-10-7
Usaini, M. I., & Abubakar, N. B. (2015). The Impact of Parents’ Occupation on Academic Performance of Secondary School Students in Kuala Terengganu. Multilingual Academic Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 3(1), 112–120. https://doi.org/10.6007/majess/v3-i1/1899
Wang, W., Dong, Y., Liu, X., Bai, Y., & Zhang, L. (2020). The effect of parents’ education on the academic and non-cognitive outcomes of their children: Evidence from China. Children and Youth Services Review, 117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105307
Woessmann, L. (2004). How Equal are Educational Opportunities? Family Background and Student Achievement in Europe and the US. SSRN ELibrary.
Zahra, L., & Wisana, I. D. G. K. (2019). Parental Migration and Child Cognitive: Evidence from Indonesian Family Life Survey 2007 and 2014. Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Faculty of Human Ecology, IPB University, 28.
Adhitya, D., Mulyaningsih, T., & Samudro, B. R. (2019). The role of cognitive and non-cognitive skills on labour market outcomes in Indonesia. Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia, 53(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.17576/JEM-2019-5301-1
Alexopoulos, D. S. (1997). Urban vs rural residence and IQ. Psychological Reports, 80(3), 851–860. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1997.80.3.851
Anger, S., & Heineck, G. (2010). Cognitive abilities and earnings - first evidence for Germany. Applied Economics Letters, 17(7), 699–702. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504850802297855
Asrijanty. (2020). BUKU SAKU ASESMEN DIAGNOSIS KOGNITIF BERKALA. Kementerian Pendidikan Dan Kebudayaan RI.
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanes, K. G. (2009). Like father, like son? A note on the intergenerational transmission of IQ scores. Economics Letters, 105(1), 138–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2009.06.022
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanes, K. G. (2010). Small family, smart family? Family size and the IQ scores of young men. Journal of Human Resources, 45(1), 33–58. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.45.1.33
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J., & Salvanesz, K. G. (2011). Older and wiser? Birth order and IQ of young men. CESifo Economic Studies, 57(1), 103–120. https://doi.org/10.1093/cesifo/ifq022
Blau, D. M. (1999). The effect of income on child development. The Review OfEconomics and Statistics, 81(2), 261–276. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1162/003465399558067
Booth, A. L., & Kee, H. J. (2009). Birth order matters: The effect of family size and birth order on educational attainment. Journal of Population Economics, 22(2), 367–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-007-0181-4
Borjas, G. J. (2016). Labor Economics (Seventh Edition). McGraw-Hill.
Burhan, N. A. S., Yunus, M. M., Tovar, M. E. L., & Burhan, N. M. G. (2017). Why are cognitive abilities of children so different across countries? The link between major socioeconomic factors and PISA test scores. Personality and Individual Differences, 105, 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.043
Castex, G., & Kogan Dechter, E. (2014). The changing roles of education and ability in wage determination. Journal of Labor Economics, 32(4), 685–710. https://doi.org/10.1086/676018
Cawley, J., Heckman, J., & Vytlacil, E. (2001). Three observations on wages and measured cognitive ability. Labour Economics, 8(4), 419–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-5371(01)00039-2
Chen, Q., Kong, Y., Gao, W., & Mo, L. (2018). Effects of socioeconomic status, parent-child relationship, and learning motivation on reading ability. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01297
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. In Research Defign: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed M ethods Approaches. SAGE Publications.
Dahl, B. G. B., & Lochner, L. (2012). The Impact of Family Income on Child Achievement : Evidence from the Earned Income Tax Credit †. 102(5), 1927–1956.
Domino, G., & Domino, L., M. (2006). PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING: AN INTRODUCTION (Second). Cambridge University Press.
Finnie, R., Lascelles, E., & Sweetman, A. (2005). Who Goes? The Direct and Indirect Effects of Family Background on Access to Postsecondary Education. In Higher Education in Canada. Statistics Canada.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Mainstream science on intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories, history, and bibliography. Intelligence, 24(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90011-8
Heckman, J. J. (2006). Jacob Mincer A Pioneer of Modern Labor Economics. In Jacob Mincer A Pioneer of Modern Labor Economics. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29175-x
Heckman, J. J., Stixrud, J., & Urzua, S. (2006). The effects of cognitive and noncognitive abilities on labor market outcomes and social behavior. Journal of Labor Economics, 24(3), 411–482. https://doi.org/10.1086/504455
Heiland, F. (2009). Does the birth order affect the cognitive development of a child? Applied Economics, 41(14), 1799–1818. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840601083220
Hotz, V. J., & Pantano, J. (2015). Strategic parenting, birth order, and school performance. Journal of Population Economics, 28(4), 911–936. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-015-0542-3
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development (pp. 1–5).
John, & Raven, J. (2003). Raven Progressive Matrices. In Handbook of Nonverbal Assessment (pp. 223–237). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0153-4_11
Kang, C. (2007). Does Money Matter ? The Effect of Private Educational Expenditures on Academic Performance Does Money Matter ? The Effect of Private Educational Expenditures on Academic Performance. National University of Singapore, Department of …, 151–164.
Le, H. T., & Nguyen, H. T. (2017). Parental health and children’s cognitive and noncognitive development: New evidence from the longitudinal survey of Australian children. Health Economics (United Kingdom), 26(12), 1767–1788. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3501
Lee, J. N., & Newhouse, D. (2012). Cognitive Skills and Youth Labor Market Outcomes. Background Paper for The World Development Report, 1–47.
Lindqvist, E., & Vestman, R. (2011). The labor market returns to cognitive and noncognitive ability: Evidence from the swedish enlistment. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 3(1), 101–128. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.3.1.101
Lukman. (2013). Skoring Psikotes.
Mankiw, N. G. (2010). Macroeconomics (7th Ed). In Worth Publishers.
Mayer, S. (2002). The influence of parental income on children’s outcomes. In Zeitschrift fur Soziologie.
Mensah, F. K., & Kiernan, K. E. (2010). Parents’ mental health and children’s cognitive and social development: Families in England in the Millennium Cohort Study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 45(11), 1023–1035. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-009-0137-y
Mitra, A. (2000). Cognitive skills and Black – White wages in the United States labor market. 29, 389–401.
Monfardini, C., & See, S. G. (2016). Birth order and child cognitive outcomes: an exploration of the parental time mechanism. Education Economics, 24(5), 481–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2015.1117581
Morris, T., Dorling, D., & Davey Smith, G. (2016). How well can we predict educational outcomes? Examining the roles of cognitive ability and social position in educational attainment. Contemporary Social Science, 11(2–3), 154–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2016.1138502
Murnane, R. J., Willett, J. B., & Levy, F. (1995). The Growing Importance of Skills in Wage Determination. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 77(2), 251–266.
Nur’aeni. (2012). TES PSIKOLOGI : Tes Inteligensi dan Tes Bakat. Universitas Muhammadiyah (UM) Purwokerto Press.
OECD. (2019). PISA 2018 Results. In OECD Publishing.
OECD. (2021). Programme for Internasional Student Assesment. OECD Publishing.
Parisi, J. M., Rebok, G. W., Xue, Q. L., Fried, L. P., Seeman, T. E., Tanner, E. K., Gruenewald, T. L., Frick, K. D., & Carlson, M. C. (2012). The role of education and intellectual activity on cognition. Journal of Aging Research, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/416132
RAND. (2018). RAND Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS). In Rand.
Schoon, I. (2010). Childhood cognitive ability and adult academic attainment: evidence from three British cohort studies. Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, 1(3), 241–258. https://doi.org/10.14301/llcs.v1i3.93
Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive Psychology Sixth Edition. In Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.198.4319.816
Tesfagiorgis, M., Tsegai, S., Mengesha, T., Craft, J., & Tessema, M. (2020). The correlation between parental socioeconomic status (SES) and children’s academic achievement: The case of Eritrea. In Children and Youth Services Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105242
Tomul, E., & Polat, G. (2013). The Effects of Socioeconomic Characteristics of Students on Their Academic Achievement in Higher Education. American Journal of Educational Research, 1(10), 449–455. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-1-10-7
Usaini, M. I., & Abubakar, N. B. (2015). The Impact of Parents’ Occupation on Academic Performance of Secondary School Students in Kuala Terengganu. Multilingual Academic Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 3(1), 112–120. https://doi.org/10.6007/majess/v3-i1/1899
Wang, W., Dong, Y., Liu, X., Bai, Y., & Zhang, L. (2020). The effect of parents’ education on the academic and non-cognitive outcomes of their children: Evidence from China. Children and Youth Services Review, 117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105307
Woessmann, L. (2004). How Equal are Educational Opportunities? Family Background and Student Achievement in Europe and the US. SSRN ELibrary.
Zahra, L., & Wisana, I. D. G. K. (2019). Parental Migration and Child Cognitive: Evidence from Indonesian Family Life Survey 2007 and 2014. Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Faculty of Human Ecology, IPB University, 28.