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September 26, 2024
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August 19, 2025
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Abstract
Dietary diversity is a reliable indicator of food security. This study examines diversity in consumption through the Simpson Index using the food expenditure approach at the regency and city levels in Indonesia, with a particular focus on Kalimantan, the location of the new capital city, Nusantara. Further analysis explores the relationship between dietary diversity and food inflation, a key aspect of food security. The data used to develop the index is drawn from the National Socio-Economic Survey (SUSENAS) conducted by Statistics Indonesia from 2020 to 2023. Food inflation modeling was performed using the Threshold Panel Regression method on data from 90 cities. The findings suggest that concerted efforts are required to enhance food diversity in the supporting regions around IKN, particularly in South Kalimantan, which exhibits a relatively lower Simpson Index compared to other areas in Kalimantan. Moreover, the Simpson Index achievement has a significant impact on reducing food inflation rates, indicating its potential as a tool for monitoring and evaluating food price fluctuations, which are critical for maintaining economic access to national food security.
Keywords
food security; consumption; Simpson index; Nusantara; food inflation
Article Details
How to Cite
Murjani, A., & Wiratama, B. F. (2025). Simpson index and food security: The case study of Kalimantan. Jurnal Ekonomi Indonesia, 14(2), 145–161. https://doi.org/10.52813/jei.v14i2.559
References
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[4] Balogh, J. M. & Sárvári, B. (2024). ‘Evolution of food price inflation in the European Union 27 member states’. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, pp. 1–27. doi: 10.1080/15378020.2024.2324545.
[5] Baudron, F., Tomscha, S. A., Powell, B., Groot, J. C. J., Gergel, S. E. & Sunderland, T. (2019). ‘Testing the Various Pathways Linking Forest Cover to Dietary Diversity in Tropical Landscapes’. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 3. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2019.00097.
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[14] García-Díez, J., Gonçalves, C., Grispoldi, L., Cenci-Goga, B. & Saraiva, C. (2021). ‘Determining Food Stability to Achieve Food Security’. Sustainability, 13 (13), p. 7222. doi: 10.3390/su13137222.
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[21] Headey, D. & Ruel, M. (2023). ‘Food inflation and child undernutrition in low and middle income countries’. Nature Communications, 14 (1), p. 5761. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-41543-9.
[22] Ismaya, B. I. & Anugrah, D. F. (2018). ‘Determinant of Food Inflation’. Buletin Ekonomi Moneter dan Perbankan, 21 (1), pp. 81–94. doi: 10.21098/bemp.v21i1.926.
[23] Jiuhardi, J., Hasid, Z., Darma, S., Priyagus, P. & Darma, D. C. (2023). ‘Towards the New National Capital (IKN) in Indonesia: Premises and Challenges of Food Security’. Anuário do Instituto de Geociências, 47. doi: 10.11137/1982-3908_2024_47_55638.
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[25] Kurniawan, R. (2022). ‘Hubungan Inflasi Indeks Harga Konsumen, Tingkat Suku Bunga, Produk Domestik Bruto, Serta Nilai Tukar di Indonesia’. Populer: Jurnal Penelitian Mahasiswa, 1 (4), pp. 49–61. doi: 10.58192/populer.v1i4.253.
[26] Malakhail, F., Debnath, D. & Westhoff, P. (2023). ‘Causes of food inflation in North America: COVID-19 and the Russia-Ukraine war’. Studies in Agricultural Economics. doi: 10.7896/j.2574.
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[29] Mottaleb, K. A., Kruseman, G. & Snapp, S. (2022). ‘Potential impacts of Ukraine-Russia armed conflict on global wheat food security: A quantitative exploration’. Global Food Security, 35, p. 100659. doi: 10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100659.
[30] Mubarik, Y. A. (2005). ‘Inflation and growth: An estimate of the threshold level of inflation in Pakistan’. SBP Research Bulletin, 1, pp. 35–44. Available at: http://www.sbp.org.pk/research/bulletin/2005/Article-3.pdf (Accessed: 17 August 2024).
[31] Murjani, A. (2019). ‘Inflation and Growth in Indonesia: The Nexus and Threshold’. Journal of Applied Economic Sciences (JAES), 14 (63), pp. 241–251.
[32] Murjani, A. (2022). ‘Apakah Fenomena Kurva Phillips Terjadi di Kalimantan Selatan? Pemodelan Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) pada Inflasi dan Pengangguran’. Ecoplan, 5 (2), pp. 96–109. doi: 10.20527/ecoplan.v5i2.485.
[33] National Food Agency. (2023). Indeks Ketahanan Pangan Tahun 2022. Jakarta.
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[35] Rajesh, R., Paczkowski, M., O’Quinn, A., Rich, L. & Ryang, S. (2022). ‘Navigating the Efficacy and Prevalence of International Food Aid Programs in Addressing World Hunger and Associated Malnutrition Within Developing Countries’. Research Square. doi: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1915455/v1.
[36] Rasmussen, L. V., Fagan, M. E., Ickowitz, A., Wood, S. L. R., Kennedy, G., Powell, B., Baudron, F., Gergel, S., Jung, S., Smithwick, E. A. H., Sunderland, T., Wood, S. & Rhemtulla, J. M. (2020). ‘Forest pattern, not just amount, influences dietary quality in five African countries’. Global Food Security, 25, p. 100331. doi: 10.1016/j.gfs.2019.100331.
[37] Rozaki, Z. (2021). ‘Food security challenges and opportunities in indonesia post COVID-19’. in, pp. 119–168. doi: 10.1016/bs.af2s.2021.07.002.
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[39] Setiartiti, L. (2021). ‘Critical Point of View: The Challenges of Agricultural Sector on Governance and Food Security in Indonesia’. E3S Web of Conferences, 232, p. 01034. doi: 10.1051/e3sconf/202123201034.
[40] Simpson, E. H. (1949). ‘Measurement of Diversity’. Nature, 163, p. 688.
[41] Singh, B. K., Delgado-Baquerizo, M., Egidi, E., Guirado, E., Leach, J. E., Liu, H. & Trivedi, P. (2023). ‘Climate change impacts on plant pathogens, food security and paths forward’. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 21 (10), pp. 640–656. doi: 10.1038/s41579-023-00900-7.
[42] Statistics Indonesia. (2024). Diagram Timbang Indeks Harga Konsumen Hasil Survei Biaya Hidup 2022. Jakarta: Statistics Indonesia. Available at: https://www.bps.go.id/id/publication/2024/02/05/f164320774fe896914f6fe1e/diagram-timbang-indeks-harga-konsumen-hasil-survei-biaya-hidup-2022.html (Accessed: 18 August 2024).
[43] Sulaeman, Y., Maftuáh, E., Noor, M., Hairani, A., Nurzakiah, S., Mukhlis, M., Anwar, K., Fahmi, A., Saleh, M., Khairullah, I., Rumanti, I. A., Alwi, M., Noor, A. & Ningsih, R. D. (2024). ‘Coastal Acid-Sulfate Soils of Kalimantan, Indonesia, for Food Security: Characteristics, Management, and Future Directions’. Resources, 13 (3), p. 36. doi: 10.3390/resources13030036.
[44] Teena Lakshmi, B. (2022). ‘An Econometric Analysis of Food Inflation in India’. Economic Affairs, 67 (3). doi: 10.46852/0424-2513.3.2022.22.
[45] Ubiora, C. U., Ezeh, M. C., George, C. I., Orjiakor, S. N., Anigbogu, C. B., Nwabude, C. G. & Omologbe, F. (2023). ‘The Impacts of Inflation on Food Security in Nigeria: A Review’. Asian Journal of Food Research and Nutrition, 2 (1), pp. 476–495.
[46] Verger, E. O., Le Port, A., Borderon, A., Bourbon, G., Moursi, M., Savy, M., Mariotti, F. & Martin-Prevel, Y. (2021). ‘Dietary Diversity Indicators and Their Associations with Dietary Adequacy and Health Outcomes: A Systematic Scoping Review’. Advances in Nutrition, 12 (5), pp. 1659–1672. doi: 10.1093/advances/nmab009.
[47] Wudil, A. H., Usman, M., Rosak-Szyrocka, J., Pilař, L. & Boye, M. (2022). ‘Reversing Years for Global Food Security: A Review of the Food Security Situation in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)’. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19 (22), p. 14836. doi: 10.3390/ijerph192214836.
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References
[1] Ben Abdallah, M., Fekete-Farkas, M. & Lakner, Z. (2021). ‘Exploring the Link between Food Security and Food Price Dynamics: A Bibliometric Analysis’. Agriculture, 11 (3), p. 263. doi: 10.3390/agriculture11030263.
[2] Aliyu, U. S., Ozdeser, H., Çavuşoğlu, B. & Usman, M. A. M. (2021). ‘Food Security Sustainability: A Synthesis of the Current Concepts & Empirical Approaches for Meeting SDGs’. Sustainability, 13 (21), p. 11728. doi: 10.3390/su132111728.
[3] Aziza S, N., Aswi, A., Fahmuddin S, M. & Asrirawan. (2023). ‘Forecasting Consumer Price Index Expenditure Inflation for Food Ingredients Using Singular Spectrum Analysis’. Jurnal Matematika Sains dan Teknologi, 24 (2), pp. 33–47. doi: 10.33830/jmst.v24i2.4868.2023.
[4] Balogh, J. M. & Sárvári, B. (2024). ‘Evolution of food price inflation in the European Union 27 member states’. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, pp. 1–27. doi: 10.1080/15378020.2024.2324545.
[5] Baudron, F., Tomscha, S. A., Powell, B., Groot, J. C. J., Gergel, S. E. & Sunderland, T. (2019). ‘Testing the Various Pathways Linking Forest Cover to Dietary Diversity in Tropical Landscapes’. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 3. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2019.00097.
[6] Cochrane, J. (2022). Inflation Past, Present and Future: Fiscal Shocks, Fed Response, and Fiscal Limits. Cambridge, MA. doi: 10.3386/w30096.
[7] Diansari, P., Nanseki, T. & Chomei, Y. (2023). ‘Impacts of Dietary Diversity on Perceived Food Security in Indonesia: An Application of Ordered Logit Model’. in Agricultural Innovation in Asia. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, pp. 169–180. doi: 10.1007/978-981-19-9086-1_11.
[8] Endris Mekonnen, E. & Kassegn Amede, A. (2022). ‘Food insecurity and unemployment crisis under COVID-19: Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa’. Cogent Social Sciences, 8 (1). doi: 10.1080/23311886.2022.2045721.
[9] Erokhin, V. & Gao, T. (2020). ‘Impacts of COVID-19 on Trade and Economic Aspects of Food Security: Evidence from 45 Developing Countries’. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17 (16), p. 5775. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17165775.
[10] FAO. (2008). An Introduction to the Basic Concepts of Food Security. Available at: https://www.fao.org/3/al936e/al936e00.pdf (Accessed: 23 March 2024).
[11] FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. (2023). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. FAO; IFAD; UNICEF; WFP; WHO; doi: 10.4060/cc3017en.
[12] Frimpong, J. M. & Oteng-Abayie, E. F. (2010). ‘When is inflation harmful? Estimating the threshold effect for Ghana’. American Journal of Economics and Business Administration, 2 (3), pp. 232–239. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.3844/ajebasp.2010.232.239 (Accessed: 17 August 2024).
[13] Ganpule-Rao, A. V., Bhat, D., Yajnik, C. S. & Rush, E. (2021). ‘Dietary diversity scores, nutrient intakes and biomarkers vitamin B12, folate and Hb in rural youth from the Pune Maternal Nutrition Study’. British Journal of Nutrition, 126 (2), pp. 236–243. doi: 10.1017/S0007114520004018.
[14] García-Díez, J., Gonçalves, C., Grispoldi, L., Cenci-Goga, B. & Saraiva, C. (2021). ‘Determining Food Stability to Achieve Food Security’. Sustainability, 13 (13), p. 7222. doi: 10.3390/su13137222.
[15] Gholizade, H., Norouzi, G. & Feizabadi, Y. (2024). ‘The impact of macroeconomic variables on socio-economic indicators of agricultural section based on government development programs’. Brazilian Journal of Biology, 84. doi: 10.1590/1519-6984.261995.
[16] Gómez, G., Nogueira Previdelli, Á., Fisberg, R. M., Kovalskys, I., Fisberg, M., Herrera-Cuenca, M., Cortés Sanabria, L. Y., Yépez García, M. C., Rigotti, A., Liria-Domínguez, M. R., Guajardo, V., Quesada, D., Murillo, A. G. & Brenes, J. C. (2020). ‘Dietary Diversity and Micronutrients Adequacy in Women of Childbearing Age: Results from ELANS Study’. Nutrients, 12 (7), p. 1994. doi: 10.3390/nu12071994.
[17] Hanley-Cook, G. T., Daly, A. J., Remans, R., Jones, A. D., Murray, K. A., Huybrechts, I., De Baets, B. & Lachat, C. (2023). ‘Food biodiversity: Quantifying the unquantifiable in human diets’. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 63 (25), pp. 7837–7851. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2051163.
[18] Hansen, Bruce. E. (2000). ‘Sample Splitting and Threshold Estimation’. Econometrica, 68 (3), pp. 575–603.
[19] Hawkins, D. M. (1980). Identification of Outliers. Monographs on Applied Probability and Statistics. Edited by F. R. S. Cox. Chapman & Hall.
[20] Headey, D. & Ecker, O. (2013). ‘Rethinking the measurement of food security: from first principles to best practice’. Food Security, 5 (3), pp. 327–343. doi: 10.1007/s12571-013-0253-0.
[21] Headey, D. & Ruel, M. (2023). ‘Food inflation and child undernutrition in low and middle income countries’. Nature Communications, 14 (1), p. 5761. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-41543-9.
[22] Ismaya, B. I. & Anugrah, D. F. (2018). ‘Determinant of Food Inflation’. Buletin Ekonomi Moneter dan Perbankan, 21 (1), pp. 81–94. doi: 10.21098/bemp.v21i1.926.
[23] Jiuhardi, J., Hasid, Z., Darma, S., Priyagus, P. & Darma, D. C. (2023). ‘Towards the New National Capital (IKN) in Indonesia: Premises and Challenges of Food Security’. Anuário do Instituto de Geociências, 47. doi: 10.11137/1982-3908_2024_47_55638.
[24] Khandelwal, S. (no date). Diversity Index Application. Available at: https://www.tutorchase.com/notes/cie-a-level/biology/18-2-6-diversity-index-application (Accessed: 8 April 2024).
[25] Kurniawan, R. (2022). ‘Hubungan Inflasi Indeks Harga Konsumen, Tingkat Suku Bunga, Produk Domestik Bruto, Serta Nilai Tukar di Indonesia’. Populer: Jurnal Penelitian Mahasiswa, 1 (4), pp. 49–61. doi: 10.58192/populer.v1i4.253.
[26] Malakhail, F., Debnath, D. & Westhoff, P. (2023). ‘Causes of food inflation in North America: COVID-19 and the Russia-Ukraine war’. Studies in Agricultural Economics. doi: 10.7896/j.2574.
[27] Mankiw, N. G. (2012). Principles of Macroeconomics. 6th edn. South-Western Cengage Learning.
[28] Mezouri, E. & Benharrat, L. (2024). ‘Oil Price Shochs’S Asymmetric Responses on Food Inflation in Middle East and North Africa Countries in the time of Ukraine-Russia Crisis’. Futurity Economics&Law, pp. 4–19. doi: 10.57125/FEL.2024.09.25.01.
[29] Mottaleb, K. A., Kruseman, G. & Snapp, S. (2022). ‘Potential impacts of Ukraine-Russia armed conflict on global wheat food security: A quantitative exploration’. Global Food Security, 35, p. 100659. doi: 10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100659.
[30] Mubarik, Y. A. (2005). ‘Inflation and growth: An estimate of the threshold level of inflation in Pakistan’. SBP Research Bulletin, 1, pp. 35–44. Available at: http://www.sbp.org.pk/research/bulletin/2005/Article-3.pdf (Accessed: 17 August 2024).
[31] Murjani, A. (2019). ‘Inflation and Growth in Indonesia: The Nexus and Threshold’. Journal of Applied Economic Sciences (JAES), 14 (63), pp. 241–251.
[32] Murjani, A. (2022). ‘Apakah Fenomena Kurva Phillips Terjadi di Kalimantan Selatan? Pemodelan Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) pada Inflasi dan Pengangguran’. Ecoplan, 5 (2), pp. 96–109. doi: 10.20527/ecoplan.v5i2.485.
[33] National Food Agency. (2023). Indeks Ketahanan Pangan Tahun 2022. Jakarta.
[34] Pozza, L. E. & Field, D. J. (2020). ‘The science of Soil Security and Food Security’. Soil Security, 1, p. 100002. doi: 10.1016/j.soisec.2020.100002.
[35] Rajesh, R., Paczkowski, M., O’Quinn, A., Rich, L. & Ryang, S. (2022). ‘Navigating the Efficacy and Prevalence of International Food Aid Programs in Addressing World Hunger and Associated Malnutrition Within Developing Countries’. Research Square. doi: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1915455/v1.
[36] Rasmussen, L. V., Fagan, M. E., Ickowitz, A., Wood, S. L. R., Kennedy, G., Powell, B., Baudron, F., Gergel, S., Jung, S., Smithwick, E. A. H., Sunderland, T., Wood, S. & Rhemtulla, J. M. (2020). ‘Forest pattern, not just amount, influences dietary quality in five African countries’. Global Food Security, 25, p. 100331. doi: 10.1016/j.gfs.2019.100331.
[37] Rozaki, Z. (2021). ‘Food security challenges and opportunities in indonesia post COVID-19’. in, pp. 119–168. doi: 10.1016/bs.af2s.2021.07.002.
[38] Saydullaeva, F., Hasanov, S., Pardaev, K. & Muratov, S. (2023). ‘Dietary diversity for ensuring food security’. E3S Web of Conferences, 365, p. 01003. doi: 10.1051/e3sconf/202336501003.
[39] Setiartiti, L. (2021). ‘Critical Point of View: The Challenges of Agricultural Sector on Governance and Food Security in Indonesia’. E3S Web of Conferences, 232, p. 01034. doi: 10.1051/e3sconf/202123201034.
[40] Simpson, E. H. (1949). ‘Measurement of Diversity’. Nature, 163, p. 688.
[41] Singh, B. K., Delgado-Baquerizo, M., Egidi, E., Guirado, E., Leach, J. E., Liu, H. & Trivedi, P. (2023). ‘Climate change impacts on plant pathogens, food security and paths forward’. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 21 (10), pp. 640–656. doi: 10.1038/s41579-023-00900-7.
[42] Statistics Indonesia. (2024). Diagram Timbang Indeks Harga Konsumen Hasil Survei Biaya Hidup 2022. Jakarta: Statistics Indonesia. Available at: https://www.bps.go.id/id/publication/2024/02/05/f164320774fe896914f6fe1e/diagram-timbang-indeks-harga-konsumen-hasil-survei-biaya-hidup-2022.html (Accessed: 18 August 2024).
[43] Sulaeman, Y., Maftuáh, E., Noor, M., Hairani, A., Nurzakiah, S., Mukhlis, M., Anwar, K., Fahmi, A., Saleh, M., Khairullah, I., Rumanti, I. A., Alwi, M., Noor, A. & Ningsih, R. D. (2024). ‘Coastal Acid-Sulfate Soils of Kalimantan, Indonesia, for Food Security: Characteristics, Management, and Future Directions’. Resources, 13 (3), p. 36. doi: 10.3390/resources13030036.
[44] Teena Lakshmi, B. (2022). ‘An Econometric Analysis of Food Inflation in India’. Economic Affairs, 67 (3). doi: 10.46852/0424-2513.3.2022.22.
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